The book of Proverbs provides the perfect illustration of this. In it we find not only programmatic statements of value like “Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues with injustice” (16:8 ESV), but also observations about human nature like “A worker’s appetite works for him; his mouth urges him on” (16:26). As we explained last time, these are truthful opinions worthy of being shared with the young to help them learn to understand the world around them and to value things rightly. 

Early education should be packed with content of this sort, both directly from the mouths of teachers, but across all the subjects of study. Reading and writing instruction should not merely train in skills but should be rich in moral wisdom. In this way, we can sow the seeds of virtue and wisdom in the young. We have already had occasion to remark on the intimate connection between the moral virtues and practical wisdom. They are two sides of the same coin. As Aristotle says, “the function of man is achieved only in accordance with practical wisdom as well as with moral excellence; for excellence makes the aim right, and practical wisdom the things leading to it” (Nicomachean Ethics VI.12; rev. Oxford trans., 1807). And again, “it is not possible to be good in the strict sense without practical wisdom, nor practically wise without moral excellence” (VI.13, 1808). 

We had to go somewhat far afield, with both John Amos Comenius, the great Czech educational reformer of the 17th century, and Aristotle as our guides, during the last article, in order to establish the necessity of laying this foundation of virtue and prudence in early education. In this article, we will put some flesh on the bones of this “good instruction” by teachers of the young through delineating the role of principles and practice, examples and discipline. 

Principles and Practice

First of all, we can pick up again and dust off the analogy between artistry and morality that we explored while introducing our series on Apprenticeship in the Arts. “Excellences we get by first exercising them,” Aristotle asserts, speaking of the moral virtues which are inextricably tied to prudence, “as also happens in the case of the arts as well. For the things we have to learn before we can do, we learn by doing, e.g. men become builders by building and lyre-players by playing the lyre; so too we become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts” (Nicomachean Ethics II.1, 1743). Practice, in line with the correct principles, will form a person toward either artistry or morality. 

As in apprenticeship in the arts then, laying the appropriate foundation for prudence involves both moral practice and principles. John Amos Comenius emphasized the preliminary role of practice in craftsmanship, and he does the same for each of the other cardinal virtues. Regarding temperance, he says, in his Great Didactic,

“Boys should be taught to observe temperance in eating and in drinking, in sleeping and in waking, in work and in play, in talking and in keeping silence, throughout the whole period of their instruction.

“In this relation the golden rule, ‘Nothing in excess,’ should be dinned into their ears, that they may learn on all occasions to leave off before satiety sets in.” (212)

Temperance constitutes a guiding principle for the ordering of students’ days that parents and teachers should heed. Notice how Comenius draws from traditional wisdom for a principle that should be actively, rather than passively “dinned into their ears.” 

As modernists and postmodernists we are apt to recoil at such tough love, but we would do well to question our assumptions. Either we order their days, emotions, and minds with an open door to intemperance (e.g., playing video games all day, eating unhealthy foods, staying up late into the night, etc.), or we hold the line and cause them to practice temperance day in and day out. Intemperate habituation is no small issue to worry about; as Aristotle said, “It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one kind or of another from our very youth; it makes a very great difference, or rather, all the difference” (Nic Ethics II.1, 1743). 

Apparently moral subtlety is not a virtue for an early education in prudence. Instead Comenius envisions a type of moral catechism with answers drawn from scripture and wise men to provide rules for life (answering questions like “Why should we strive against envy?” “With what arms should we fortify ourselves against the sorrows and chances of life?” “How should we observe moderation in joy?” “How should anger be controlled?” “How should illicit love be driven out?”; 216). These provide the guiding principles to accompany the practice of daily life.

Comenius goes on to delineate the reason for this habituation according to the cardinal virtues. It lies in the rational nature of a human being and therefore develops the proper connection between moral habits and the principled deliberation of prudence:

The principle which underlies this is that we should accustom boys to do everything by reason, and nothing under the guidance of impulse. For man is a rational animal, and should therefore be led by reason, and, before action, ought to deliberate how each operation should be performed, so that he may really be master of his own actions. Now since boys are not quite capable of such a deliberate and rational mode of procedure, it will be a great advance towards teaching them fortitude and self-control if they be forced to acquire the habit of performing the will of another in preference to their own, that is to say, to obey their superiors promptly in everything. (212-213)

For Comenius, obedience to a prudent parent or teacher acts as a preliminary stage in a person’s development of prudential wisdom. Since children cannot be entirely rational in consulting about which operation or act to perform, they should obey their elders, who at the same time explain to them the reasons for why one course of action should be preferred to another. 

Children thus act as moral apprentices through the habit of prompt obedience, practicing the very thing that they will do in later life when they must subordinate the impulsive and emotional part of them to their rational and deliberate mind. Again it must be reiterated that this is not the possession of prudence itself, but it is, in Comenius’ mind, “a great advance” toward it. A development of his playful analogy, sowing the seeds of virtue, helps him explain why:

“Virtue must be inculcated at a very early stage before vice gets possession of the mind.

“For if you do not sow a field with good seed it will produce nothing but weeds of the worst kind. But if you wish to subdue it, you will do so more easily and with a better hope of success if you plough it, sow it, and harrow it in early spring. Indeed, it is of the greatest importance that children be well trained in early youth, since a jar preserves for a long time the odour with which it has been imbued when new.” (215)

For this reason, we can see as injurious the inclination of many parents and teachers, to say of some vice a young child is displaying, “Oh, he’ll grow out of it.” Weeds do not disappear of their own accord but grow and infest the field. The diligent labor of bringing up children involves, first, sowing well the field, but then, harrowing it, as well, breaking up the ground and tearing up the weeds through proper discipline. But we are getting ahead of ourselves.

Examples and Discipline

So far we have explained the importance of providing principles alongside practice to prepare the hearts and minds of students for moral virtue and intellectual prudence. In his Great Didactic Comenius reiterates this Aristotelian emphasis on ‘practice, practice, practice’ as he transitions to a discussion of examples: 

We have seen in chaps. xx. and xxi. that it is by learning that we find out what we ought to learn, and by acting that we learn to act as we should. So then, as boys easily learn to walk by walking, to talk by talking, and to write by writing, in the same way they will learn obedience by obeying, abstinence by abstaining, truth by speaking the truth, and constancy by being constant. But it is necessary that the child be helped by advice and example at the same time. (215)

Just as in other skills and arts, practice according to good principles provides the foundation for prudence. In a similar way to training in artistry, where theory should not crowd out the importance of examples and models, so also in prudence moral exemplars hold a crucial role.

When the classicists among us think of moral exemplars, we might imagine Plutarch’s Lives or Aesop’s fables, the well-known figures of history and literature who demonstrate for us right and wrong behavior in the vivid color of a narrative. And this is right, but Comenius reminds us of the even more living curriculum of the lives of people in the school community: “Examples of well-ordered lives, in the persons of their parents, nurses, tutors, and school-fellows, must continually be set before children” (215). Comenius seems to suggest highlighting virtuous and wise individuals in the community through public praise and story-telling. We could imagine this being done in the classroom or assembly-hall, formally and informally. 

Comenius’ reason for valuing living examples resonates with modern research on mirror neurons and our imitative nature as human beings: 

For boys are like apes, and love to imitate whatever they see, whether good or bad, even though not bidden to do so; and on this account they learn to imitate before they learn to use their minds. By ‘examples,’ I mean living ones as well as those taken from books; in fact, living ones are the more important because they make a stronger impression. And therefore, if parents are worthy and careful guardians of domestic discipline, and if tutors are chosen with the greatest possible care, and are men of exceptional virtue, a great advance will have been made towards the proper training of the young in morals. (215)

We might supplement Comenius statement about children “learning to imitate before they learn to use their minds” with reference to the recent research that links imitation to the foundational emotional and artistic skills, say in mirroring the emotions of another through facial expressions or the hand-grasping movements of another simply by observing (see Patrick’s article The Imitation Brain). This monkey-see, monkey-do (or monkey-feel) may be less than the fully blossomed rationality of prudence, but it is a fundamental and therefore necessary step along the way. 

Parents and teachers must remember that their example and influence will have a real and overarching effect on the moral development of the children under their care. This is not an area where “Do as I say, not as I do” is going to be effective (if there is any domain where that works…). Ironically, it is this personal lack of prudence that contributes to parents’ lack of perseverance in discipline. Did you notice how in the block quote above Comenius transitioned immediately from living examples to the necessity of parents as “worthy and careful guardians of domestic discipline”? In his mind these are connected, because the faithful administration of discipline in the little things of the home functions as an overflow of a prudent and godly life.

In our modern cultural imagination we picture the pickiness of a hot-tempered and unpredictable parent when we think of domestic discipline: e.g., the surly father who corrects his son’s eating habits or messy room when he himself is in a bad mood from work. But for Comenius and the Christian tradition (“Fathers, do not provoke your children to anger, but bring them up in the discipline and instruction of the Lord.” -Ephesians 6:4), “domestic discipline” involves consistency, emotional warmth, and a sensitivity to the child’s needs and abilities. In another counter cultural move (for us anyway), Comenius agrees with Charlotte Mason that children should “be very carefully guarded from bad society, lest they be infected by it” (216). Apparently, the idea that “You are the average of the five people you spend the most time with” has a deeper moral point to it. Comenius also believes that ‘idleness is the devil’s playground’ for the young, who are apt to “be led to evil deeds or contract a tendency to indolence” through it (216). They should therefore “be kept continually employed either with work or with play” (216). 

It is important to note the Christian coloring that Comenius has given discipline in its role in developing prudence, at the same time as we consider the tradition’s questioning of corporal punishment in school. Quintilian, the famous Roman rhetorical teacher, for instance, had ruled against the use of corporal punishment in his Education of an Orator as tending toward a slavish disposition in students and abusiveness on the part of the tutor (I.3.14). Comenius, likewise, seems to have a lighter approach, remarking famously on the natural curiosity of children and the easiness of the way he recommends. However, when it comes to moral and spiritual matters he has a Christian seriousness that we must reckon with. He begins by noting the inevitability of discipline: “Since it is impossible for us to be so watchful that nothing evil can find an entrance, stern discipline is necessary to keep evil tendencies in check” (216). 

The whole work of sowing the seeds of prudence is for Comenius elevated to the spiritual plane of reference, when we view it from a Christian worldview–a fact that increases the need for watchfulness and careful treatment of moral maladies through timely discipline:

For our enemy Satan is on the watch not only while we sleep, but also while we wake, and as we sow good seed into the minds of our pupils he contrives to plant his own weeds there as well, and sometimes a corrupt nature brings forth weeds of its own accord, so that these evil dispositions must be kept in check by force. We must therefore strive against them by means of discipline, that is to say, by using blame or punishment, words or blows, as the occasion demands. This punishment should always be administered on the spot, that the vice may be choked as soon as it shows itself, or may be, as far as is possible, torn up by the roots. Discipline, therefore, should ever be watchful, not with the view of enforcing application to study (for learning is always attractive to the mind, if it be treated by the right method), but to ensure cleanly morals. (216-217)

Comenius’ measured approach stands between the extreme positions of our time and his, where the sterner forms of punishment (and even the name of punishment) is either neglected or over-used. His little phrase, “as the occasion demands,” endorses the prudential use of varied types of rebuke or consequence in a way that fits the students’ moral misstep.

If we are to recover the Aristotelian goal of prudence, we must reconsider the details of discipline as a part of a moral education. Principles and practice, examples and discipline form the appropriate web of “good instruction” that functions as a preliminary training in prudence, with the ultimate goal that students internalize right and wrong and a true sense of the value of things in the moral and spiritual universe from a God’s-eye perspective.

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In 2010, a study took mirror neurons to the next level by identifying mirror neurons in humans. Scientists were able to utilize the intracranial electrodes implanted in 21 patients who were being treated for epilepsy. These subjects were presented with a number of facial expressions and hand-grasping movements to determine cellular activity in the brain. They recorded “extracellular activity from 1177 cells in human medial frontal and temporal cortices while patients executed or observed hand grasping actions and facial emotional expressions.” (Mukamel, Roy, et al. “Single-neuron responses in humans during execution and observation of actions.” Curr. Biol. vol. 20,8 (2010): 750-6.) What this means is that humans at the neurological level respond to the actions of others. There’s a link between observed action and performing the same action. The implications of mirror neurons for bolstering our understanding of the process of learning are immense. In this article we will explore some of the ways we can increase our awareness of neuronal activity in our students as well as practical strategies to optimize learning.

Do Mirror Neurons Even Exist?

Almost immediately after the groundbreaking study of mirror neurons in human studies, the idea of mirror neurons captured the collective imagination of society. Ramachandran’s popular TED talk boldly claimed that mirror neurons “shaped civilization.” It was all too easy to jump from neurological phenomena to claims of mind reading and an easy pathway to improving a free throw simply by watching expert videos. These claims seemed too good to be true, and in large part they are too good to be true.

Thus, when Gregory Hickok came out with his book, The Myth of Mirror Neurons (Norton, 2014), much of the momentum that had built up around mirror neurons was halted. In a nutshell, Hickok began to question the claims being made regarding mirror neurons. As a language specialist, he simply didn’t see the empirical evidence in his field of specialization nor in other fields, particularly as it relates to “action understanding.” His work points out “the many ways that the theory falls short on logical or empirical grounds.”

From the skepticism of Hickok and others, a taming of the field took place where more modest models were proposed. The current debate questions whether the mirror effect is based specifically in a mirror neuron, or whether there is a mirror system that combines multiple systems such as the visual cortex and premotor cortices (see e.g., Cecelia Hayes, et al “What Happened to Mirror Neurons?” Perspectives on Psychological Science,vol. 17,1 (2021): 153-68.) It is clear that areas of the brain “light up” when an individual sees the actions of another individual. Now the question is what mechanisms are activated when this occurs, and (more important for our purposes) what can we learn about human learning from these areas of the brain. Whether mirror neurons actually exist, it does seem that there is a mirroring system in place which gives us some potential to utilize imitation based on visual and motor inputs.

Visual and Motor Connections

Even though debate remains as to what mirror neurons are and how they operate within the brain, there are some fascinating connections that are almost intuitive. To mirror another person, one must be able to see them and then do actions in a similar way. Thus the visual cortex and motor neurons are central to what is going on with this mirror effect. Let’s break this down a bit further.

Both learning and memory are closely associated with visual inputs. Not only do we need visual inputs to read text, converting symbols into units of meaning, we also need visual inputs to read faces for non-verbal cues or to “read the room” for social cues. In the book Uncommon Sense Teaching, the authors describe the connection between vision and the brain:

“Your vision and hearing are processed in the back of your brain. This behind-most area matures first, in early childhood. Mental maturation—which means pruning and loss of flexibility—gradually moves toward the front of the brain. The very last area to mature is the prefrontal cortex, where planning and judgment take place. . . .The ability to adjust the brain’s connections doesn’t stop at maturity, however. New synaptic connections as well as pruning continue throughout people’s lifetimes.”

Barbara Oakley, et al, Uncommon Sense Teaching (New York: Tarcher Perigree, 2021), 90-91.

Vision is a fundamental process of the brain that comes online early in our development. What this means is that from the earliest ages we are taking in vast amounts of information through what we see and hear. One of the consequences of the mirror system is that we become what we see, in a manner of speaking. It is important, therefore, to carefully curate the visual environment of children. Presenting children with great works of art and the natural world around us stimulates a host of neural connections that cannot be duplicated with digital screens.

Movement is equally important to learning. Consider the act of writing. There are numerous fine motor skills that transform the electrical impulses of the neurons in our brains into a series of symbols that emerge almost effortlessly on the page. Aleksandr Luria writes in his book The Working Brain:

“Writing in the initial stages takes place through a chain of isolated motor impulses, each of which is responsible for the performance of only one element of the graphic structure; with practice, this structure of the process is radically altered and writing is converted into a single ‘kinetic melody,’ no longer requiring the memorization of the visual form of each isolated letter or individual motor impulses for making every stroke.’

Aleksandr Luria, The Working Brain (New York: Penguin, 1973), 32.

Learning to write involved imitation of a pattern of letters, and then eventually a pattern of phonemes in order to spell words correctly. The intersection of visual and motor cortices seems to be this mirror system where a strong exemplar is presented to brain such that it takes in these patterns in order to reproduce them with a high level of specificity.

We see these visual and motor connections not only with reading and writing, but also with a whole host of activities, from sketching to shooting a basketball. Increasing our awareness of this connection for learning should guide our decision making as we map out our classroom décor, as we schedule our days, and as we plan our lessons.

Imitation and Mimesis: The Classical Paradigm

We are mimetic by nature, at least that is what Aristotle conjectures in his Poetics. One of the exciting avenues the discovery of mirror neurons took us down is actually one that is rather quite old. The Greek term mimesis (μίμησις) means something like imitation or simulation. Both Plato and Aristotle agree that we as human beings represent nature through imitation. This occurs through poetry, literature, painting, drama, song, etc. Plato took a somewhat negative view of our mimetic nature, contemplating that the artist can never attain a full representation of the truth. Aristotle, however, took a more positive view of the imitative process, with the artist or poet creating a representation of reality that causes the viewer to experience a type of empathy with reality. In other words, the artist’s ability to bring out some aspect of truth touches us at a deep level, making us all the more aware of something profound, or tragic, or sublime, or transcendent.

The Circe Institute website provides an excellent overview of mimetic teaching. They explain mimesis with a beautiful description:

“Mimesis is an imitation, not of the outward form, but of the inner idea—not ultimately of an action, but of the idea expressed in that action. Every art and skill is mastered through these stages, whether in school or out. It is a modified inductive form of instruction in which students are led to understand ideas by contemplating models or types of them. These models can be found in literature, history, mathematics, the fine arts, music, other human arts and activities, and nature.”

“What is Mimetic Teaching?: A Lost Tools of Writing Excerpt,” (circeinstitute.org)

The web page goes on to delineate the seven stages of a mimetic lesson. At the heart of this model is imitation. The learner is presented with something and then is called upon to imitate.

Another classic expression of imitation is carried out through apprenticeship. Here the learner copies the master on their own journey toward mastery. The heart of the apprenticeship approach to learning is deliberate practice. The student is coached to acquire and hone skills across the disciplines.

The classical paradigm of imitation and mimesis have long been instrumental for learning knowledge and skills. Now recent research are identifying that there is a neurological underpinning to these time-tested modes of learning through imitation.

Paint, Sing, Act, Dance and Play

There are many practical steps we can take as educators in light of the emerging neuroscience in addition to the classical modes of mimesis and apprenticeship. Here I will spell out a few, trusting that others will emerge in your own creative planning for your students.

First, we should present to our students excellent visual content. Here we can consider great works of art. The masters we would want to imitate ought to be ever-present in our environment. But we can go beyond great works of art. Students should see examples of beautiful handwriting. They should see excellent mathematical and geometric models. They should observe the natural world, whether that is on a nature walk or bringing quality specimens into the classroom. Once we understand how important this idea of imitation is, then we can begin to bring before our students high quality examples in all parts of life.

I am quick to add here that narration dances about the connection between the visual and motor. When the student is reading or listening, the student should be visualizing in their mind by way of their imagination what is being read or told. Then in the act of telling back, that internal visualization is converted into something verbal. We are big proponents of narration here at Educational Renaissance, and there is ample reason at a neurological level to make this a regular practice in your classroom.

Second, the point of this mirror system is that our students put into practice the exemplary models placed before them. There is a moral and spiritual aspect to this. The call for excellent books is not merely to have expansive vocabulary and eloquent style. We are looking for moral virtue in the characters of literature and history. When the mind’s eye is filled with the heroic individual, we can then be called to follow that example. Consider the biblical passage of 1 Peter 2:21, “For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you might follow in his steps.” At the same time that Peter identifies Christ’s suffering as the means of our salvation, he also points to Christ as the mode of living we ought to carry out, with both moral and spiritual implications.

Third, the connection between the visual and motor cortices means we need to act out what it is we are learning. I think this happens naturally when young boys and girls act out the parts of an ancient Roman battle when they are playing during recess. At a neurological level, that kind of play is linking up all kinds of synapses in the brain. At another level, children are practicing something noble. It is a way of responding to what they have visualized in their minds eye and now carry out in bodily play. There is something to becoming more and more skilled at such activities as painting, singing, acting, dancing and playing. Consider the student who has many years of practice using the drybrush watercolor technique. That student’s ability to make visual and motor connections is enhanced by that growth in skill.

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